1. INTRODUCTION:

Under the cosmetics terminology there are wide range of products, which are designed to be used externally and intended to cleanse, perfume, change the appearance of, correct odours emanating from, or more generally to keeping the areas in good condition where they been applied¹. Emergence of globalisation resulted in evolution of these products and their use is reflected as essential part of personal wellness. The better quality life expectancy which had developed along with the evolution of beauty standards has changed greatly the consumer prescriptions of routine daily care products, which now not only restricted to the basic products that is toothpaste, soap etc². In last few years, the cosmetic industry has been growing tremendously with and escalating rate of around 15% and still growing.

With the increase in anxiety for beauty products, the application of cosmetic products has melodramatically strengthened¹. For providing more youthful, healthier, and smoother skin the skincare industry has been continuously exploring different ways for product development³. Along with improved product features, the use and positioning of nanotechnology based technologies are considered as one of the hottest technology available. The inclusion and use of nano-scale components is gaining popularity in the cosmetic related industry⁴. The reason behind this is their nano-scaled size and high surface area to volume ratio. Nanotechnology is an innovative science that involves the design, characterization, production, and use of structures, equipment, and systems by controlling the size and shape on a nanometer scale ranging in size from 1 nanometer to 100 nanometer (nm), where 1 nanometer is 1 billionth of a meter⁵. It is not new news for cosmetic companies that nanotechnology is the way of the future and it is considered to be the most popular and developing technology available⁶. For providing better and better UV protection, long lasting effects, deeper skin penetration, and increased colour and finish quality the cosmetic developers are using nanoscale versions of ingredients⁷. The extensive use of nanoscale materials in cosmetics is due to the incorporation of newer properties and characteristics which differ largely from the large scale particles. These altered properties may include colour, transparency, chemical reactivity and solubility which makes the nanomaterials demanding to the cosmetics and personal care industries⁸. It has been nearly 40 years since nanotechnology has been introduced to the areas like engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, and science. Similarly it has been introduced to the field of cosmetics, health products, and dermal preparations. There are records that during the era of 4000BC the Egyptians, Greek and romans has been using nanotechnology for applications like preparation of hair dyes etc⁹.

Cosmeceuticals are the cosmetic products which incorporates the biologically active ingredients which have therapeutic effects on the surface being applied¹⁰. Raymond Reed firstly coined the term cosmeceuticals and this was further investigated by Dr Albert Kligman in the late 1970s¹¹. These are considered and utilised under the cosmetics as they claim to improve appearance. Cosmeceuticals is the gap between pharmaceutical products and personal care products¹². Cosmeceutical products have quantifiable therapeutic effectiveness on the skin same as like drugs and these formulations have diverse range from skin to hair to and they are being utilised for the treatment of different types of conditions which include wrinkles, hair damage, dark spots, photo aging, uneven complexion, skin dryness, hyperpigmentation, and many more¹³. In the area of cosmetics it is believed that the smaller the particles the more readily will be the absorption of particles into the skin and can repair the damage easily and more effectively¹⁴. The reason behind incorporation of nanotechnology in cosmeceuticals is for making incense of perfumes last longer, antiaging creams to fight back the years, sunscreens to protect the skin, and moisturizers to maintain the hydration of skin¹⁵. The different nanoparticles used in the cosmetic products include nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, niosomes, nanocrystals, polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, micelles, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes and dendrimers¹⁶. UV light filters which incorporates use of nanoparticles includes the mineral based nanoparticle which contain titanium, iron or zinc. Carbon nanotubes and fullerenes are carbon based nanoparticles and these are being discovered for their potential antioxidant properties¹⁷. Antiaging nano-pharmaceuticals that are available in market such as hair care products including shampoos, conditioners, and hair growth stimulants, colouring and styling products may possess nanotubes, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanospheres, gold nanoparticles, microemulsions, niosomes, liposomes, fullerenes, and nanoemulsions for the purpose of the sealing the moisture around the cuticles and optimising contact time with the scalp and follicles by the formation of a protective film¹⁸. Nanocosmeceuticals have been also incorporated in lip care products like lip balm, lipsticks, lip glosses, and lip volumizers. The aim of applying nanparticles in lip care products is for increasing lip softness, to prevent transperidermal water loss, and to keep the desired styling effect for a longer period of time¹⁹. In the field of nail care products nanotechnology is stepping its foot. Nanocosmeceuticals in the nail polishers enhance the toughness, are having more durability and resistance, dry faster than the conventional products and have higher elasticity which facilitates the applications. The silver and metal oxide nanoparticles are having the antifungal properties, so the use of these materials in formulation may provide with antifungal effect and can be used in case of treating the tonsils in case of fungal infections²⁰. Nanocosmeceuticals have played an important role in the area of tissue regeneration and nanomaterial loaded cosmeceuticals. As these products are having various benefits, these products are to be claimed for reducing the signs of ageing, providing highly rejuvenating skin and these products are of great demand in market²¹.

2. Possible mechanisms of action for nanocosmeceuticals^22,23,24:

Due to its high surface area skin is considered as the major part of the human body. The main applications served by the skin include protection, regulation and sensation. The average surface area occupied by the skin is measured approximately 1.6-1.9m². The stratum corneum layer of the skin act as a major barrier and can also offers selective pathway for not only the delivery of the therapeutic agents but also for the cosmeceuticals. In case of topical and transdermal delivery the active moiety can penetrate the skin via the intracellular, intercellular and transappendageal routes into the skin matrix or the subcutaneous tissues and into the systemic circulation respectively. The nanocarriers can translocate without degrading into the skin or they can be degraded near skin surface where the therapeutic moieties which are encapsulated can penetrate into the skin layer. For the entry of nanoparticles into the skin the transappendageal route shown to be the great pathway when most of the sub-micron sized particles are not able to cross the subcutaneous layer. Various passive and active permeation enhancement methods can be used for the successful penetration of inorganic and polymeric nanoparticles into the cutaneous layer. The size, morphology, surface features, physicochemical properties, drug loading efficiency and lamellar arrangements decides the interaction between nanoparticles and skin. These properties may help in deciding the route of delivery for the formulation. For the skin related diseases the lipid based vesicular drug delivery systems are preferred. The sunscreen containing polymeric nanoparticles along with other agents permeate into the subcutaneous layer for the delivery of the encapsulated drug into the skin. Inorganic nanoparticles which include Zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) are the major examples of cosmetically desirable and transparent sunscreens. In many early diagnosis of skin ailments magnetic/metallic nanoparticles are useful for the cell labelling or the skin targeting purpose. These nanoparticles can passively penetrate the subcutaneous layer and hair follicles which makes them easy to reach the stratum granulosum. In case of quantum dots, these can preferably accumulate in the hair follicles and the upper subcutaneous layer. Their skin permeation mechanism may include entry through subcutaneous intracellular lipid layers.

3. Nanoparticles in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals:

The different nanoparticles used in the cosmetic products include nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, niosomes, nanocrystals, polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, micelles, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes and dendrimers. These are explained one by one in following text⁹.

3.1 Liposomes.^25,26,27:

Liposomes are the spherical materials which are self-closed vesicles of colloidal dimensions, in which phospholipid bilayer part of the solvent, in which they freely float into their interior. Size of liposomes typically vary from 20nm to the few hundred micrometers. Due to their biocompatibility, biodegradable nature, nontoxicity, and flexibility of vesicles and their ability to encapsulate active ingredients easily liposomes have wide range of applications in the cosmeceuticals. Due to their ability to protect encapsulated drug from the external environment and suitability for delivering the hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds they are ideal candidate for drug and cosmetic delivery. Phosphatidylcholine is the main component in liposomes has application in skin care products and hair care products due to its softening and conditioning properties.

3.2 Niosomes.^28,29:

Niosomes are the vesicles of non-ionic surfactant devised by the use of non-ionic surfactants. Niosomes have enhanced penetration ability and their production cost compared to the liposomes is low. Morphologically niosomes are nanostructured compounds with size ranging from 100nm to 2µm in diameter. The centre of niosomes is an aqueous cavity enveloped by the layers of non-ionic surfactants in lamellar phase. For the topical delivery of variety of drugs and cosmetics these have been evaluated as vesicular carriers. Due to their ability to enhance the residence time of active ingredients in stratum coneum along with epidermis and reduced systemic absorption niosomes can be found as promising candidates for the efficient topical delivery of the active ingredients. Due the ability of niosomes to deliver active ingredients the specific site where there is need of therapeutic effect niosomes can be used in the targeted drug delivery.

3.3 Cubosomes.^30,31:

Cubosomesafre the nanostructured, submicron level, discrete particles of the bicontinous cubic liquid crystalline phase. In recent years the research on cubosomes resulted in the use of cubosomes in different personal care products varying from the skin care to the antiperspirants. Many research groups along with many companies have been trying to use cubosomes as stabilizers in oil-in-water emulsion and adsorbents of pollutants in cosmeceuticals.

3.4 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles.^32,33,34

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are the colloidal carriers of the submicron level whose size ranging from 50nm to 100nm. SLNs contains the physiological lipids which are dispersed in aqueous phase along with the blend of surfactants. Due to various advantages SLNs are popular in the cosmeceutical industry. The main advantage of SLN include their use of physiological and biodegradable lipids which are having low toxicity. The small size of the SLNs makes sure the close contact with the stratum corneum. SLN increase the potential of penetration of active ingredients to the skin and they also possess occlusive properties which result in the better skin hydration. SLNs are one of the prominent candidates for the development of more efficient sunscreen systems with less side effects as it has been proven that SLNs have characteristics of physical UV blockers on their own. In a study reported by a research group it come to know that use of 4% SLNs in conventional cream increased the skin hydration by 31% after 4 weeks. In the topical perfumes SLNs act as vesicles to provide more advantages. For providing prolonged effect and slowing down the release, the perfumes/fragrances can be incorporated in SLNs.

3.5 Nanocapsule.^35,36

Nanocapsules are submicroscopic particles that are composed of a polymeric capsule surrounding an aqueous or oily core. It has been found that the practice of nanocapsules decreases the penetration of UV filter octylmethoxycinnamate in pig skin when compared with conventional emulsions.

3.6 Nanocrystals.^37,38

Nanocrystals are aggregated that are composed of several hundreds to thousands of atoms which are combined into a cluster and their size ranges from 10-400nm. These nanocrystals are used for the delivery of the poorly soluble active compounds. Aqueous surfactant dispersion of poorly water soluble drugs can be formulated into nanocrystals to improve solubility and bioavailability. The first cosmetic formulation to improve the solubility by using nanocrystals was to improve the solubility of two flavonoids i.e. rutin and hesperidin with antioxidants.

3.7 Dendrimers.^39,40

Dendrimers are the entities made of organic chemicals which consists of a semi polymeric tree-like-structure. It consist of polymeric branches are the terminal of these branches provide a great surface area which acts as functional area. Dimensions of the dendrimers are very small in size, the diameter of these dendrimers is around 2 – 10nm. Dendrimers are exclusive new class of macromolecular structure. These are significant part of the nanotechnology based cosmeceuticals that are used in treatment of various skin conditions.

3.8 Nanogold and Nanosilver.^41,42,43,44

Due to their antibacterial and antifungal activity Gold and silver nanoparticles have been used extensively as a valuable nanomaterial in the cosmeceutical industry. Many cosmetic product like deodorants, antifungal creams, antiaging products, face pack and many more uses gold and silver nanoparticles for their applicability. An ointment preparation which contain silver nanoparticle was claimed to have antibacterial activity. This can be used for the treatment of skin inflammation and disinfection of the skin wounds.

3.9 Fullerene.^45,46,47

Anti-oxidative properties of materials can be useful in cosmeceutical products. One of these anti-oxidative material used in cosmetic product is carbon based material that is fullerene. Fullerenes have a potential capacity of scavenging against the radical oxygen species. Fullerenes are proved to have skin rejuvenation properties and hence been used in the skin rejuvenation and antiaging formulations. These carbon structures are made of ring of carbon and contained odd-numbered (like Pentagon and heptagon) carbon rings, which confirms a three dimensional spherical shape. For this reason these are also called as fullerene or the Bucky Ball. Due to their hydrophobic nature these are not soluble in water thus their aqueous solubility is limited. Less aqueous solubility is the main reason for their limited applications, but this limitation is also overcome by addition of surfactants and surface modifications to increase the ability of fullerenes to increase the solubility of the fullerenes in water and their full applications in pharmaceutical area can be explored more efficiently.

3.10 Hydrogels^48,49

Hydrogels are the three dimensional polymeric network which are hydrophilic in nature that swell in water or any biological fluid without dissolving due the chemical or physical cross linking present in them. Hydrogels have ability of predicting the future change and they can adapt according to it to prevent damage.

3.11 Nanoemulsions^50,51

Nano-emulsions are dispersions of the nano sized droplets of one immiscible phase in another that is oil in water or water in oil. Nano-emulsions are the metastable systems and their structures can be manipulated based on the preparation method used in their preparation. The constituents used for the preparation of nano-emulsions are mainly products listed under GRAS and are safe to use. Due to their small particle size these provide higher stability and better suitability for carrying of the active ingredients. Nanoemulsions also use the shelf life of product that’s why they have exclusive application in cosmeceuticals.

4. Nano-cosmeceutical applications:

Cosmeceuticals are considered as the one of the fastest growing sector in personal care industry. Large number of nanomaterials are been used in various personal care products like skincare products, hair care products, nail care products, lip care products and many more. Let’s see about them one by one.

4.1 Skin Care.^23,52,53

Cosmeceuticals use in the skin care products upgrade the skin texture and its functioning by the stimulation of growth of collagen by combating with the harmful effects of free radicals. Maintaining the structure of keratin in decent condition can help in the keeping skin healthier. Zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles present in sunscreen products are one of the most effective minerals which protects the skin by penetrating into the deeper layers of skin. Use of these materials make skin products less smelly, less greasy and transparent. Nanomaterials like SLNs, liposomes, nano-emulsions, and niosomes are widely used in the moisturizing formulations. These products form a thin layer humectants and help to retain moisture for a prolonged time. Nanocosmeceutical products currently present in the market containing liposomes, niosomes, nanospheres and nanocapsules provide benefits like collagen renewal, skin rejuvenation, and firming and lifting the skin.

4.2 Hair Care.^54,55

Nanocosmeceuticals under haircare category includes hair growth products, shmapoos and conditioning products, stimulants, colouring and styling products. Unique size of nanoparticles can provide various essential properties hair follicle, shaft targeting and increased quantity of active ingredients. Nanoparticles used in the shampoos help in sealing the moisture inside cuticles by the optimization resident time with scalp and hair follicles by formation of a protective film. Conditioning nanocosmeceuticls have proved to be imparting hairs more softness, shine, silkiness and gloss. It also helps in untying of hairs. Novel nanocarriers like nano-spheres, liposomes, niosomes, nanoemulsions, and microemulsions have a most important function of repairing damaged cuticles, restoring texture and gloss, and making hair less brittle, shiny and non-greasy.

4.3 Lip Care.^56,57

Various type of lip care products including lipstick, lip gloss, lip balm, and lip volumizer make use of various types of nanoparticles. Different type of nanoparticles can be incorporated into the lip gloss and lipstick for the purpose of softening of lips by avoiding water loss. Nanoparticles also prevent the migration of pigments from lips and try to maintain the colour for long period of time. Lip volume can be used by using the liposomes, it also hydrates the outline of lips and wrinkles are filled.

4.4 Nail Care.^9,56,58

Nail care products containing nanoparticles have great applicability and are superior over the conventional nail care products. Fast dryness, chip resistance, improved toughness, durability, ease of application due to elasticity are some of the advantages over conventional nail care products. Novel strategies including amalgamation of silver and metal oxide nanoparticles have antifungal activities in nail paints for the treatment of toe nails caused due to fungal infections.

4.5 Moisturizers.^59,60

The main purpose of stratum corneum is to act as a barrier for the water, means it keeps inside water inside and outside out. Dehydration can occur due to the evaporation of water from the stratum corneum. This type of dehydration can be avoided by the making use of moisturizers. Basically moisturizers provide flexibility to the skin and make skin look younger. When moisturizers are applied on the skin, a thin layer of humectant is formed which retains moisture and gives better look to the skin. Prolonged moisturizing effect can be provided by the making use of nanoparticles such as liposomes, SLNs and nanoemulsions. Moisturizers are the most successful and useful product for the management of various skin diseases like psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and pruritus.

4.6 Sunscreens.^61,62

Sunscreens are extensively applicable for the protection of skin from the hazardous effects of sun rays on exposure to the skin. Skin damage from the sun rays can be effectively protected by the use of mineral based ingredients such as Titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO). These mineral based materials can for a materialistic barrier on the skin which reflects dangerous UVA and UVB rays from penetrating down to the deeper skin layers and also decreases the skin irritation caused due to this. Traditional or conventional sunscreen products when applied to the skin leaves behind a white chalky layer which is considered as one of the main drawback. To overcome this use of nanomaterials can be done. Use of nanotechnology can boost the current applications of sunscreen by many folds. ZnO or TiO2 containing nanoparticle products are more transperant, less smelly and less greasy appearance.

4.7 Antiaging Products.^20,63,64

In modern days various mechanism and factors are involved in the skin ageing which includes, chemical products, irradiation from infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) sources, pollution, stress, and abrasion. In the skin rejuvenation and wrinkles reversal collagen plays an important role. Along with increased age the quantity of collagen in skin decreases. The ageing of skin can be revealed itself in many ways which include, loss of elasticity, drying out, loss of texture, damaged barrier function, modification of surface line isotropy, appearance of spots, and wrinkles. Most of the cosmeceutical products claim to give moisturizing effect, reduces wrinkles and firms the skin improve skin tone and provide skin whitening.

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Received on 09.07.2022 Modified on 30.08.2022

Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2023; 13(1):18-24.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5691.2023.00003