INTRODUCTION:

In past, herbs are used in cooking only but as with advancement in science, it is seen that herbs are the blessings of nature having many important pharmacological characteristics and properties¹.At present, herbs are not only main components of our food, but majority of population is taking these herbs as medicine of different forms². Literature of every religion and civilization emphasizes on the use of herbs in food as herbs are pharmacologically important. As nothing is useless in this world, so every part of plants, herbs and shrubs are important in one or more than one senses^3,4. Many studies have shown the adverse effects of synthetic medicines. It has seen that if synthetic medicines are used for a long period of time, then it will affect the body and cause some permanent disorders.

So, it is the time need that pharmaceutical industry think about herbal medicines again and promote the usage of herbal medicines. There is only few plants or herbs which do not show any beneficial activity. Although there are many plants which possess several activities like antifungal, antiviral, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, anticancer, antidiabetic and antipyretic. Now, herbs and plants are become the source of ailments and treatment for several diseases and disorders^5,6. These natural products have the potency to treat dangerous diseases like cancer⁷.

Phenols, flavonoids, coumarins, quinones, saponins, xanthones, alkaloids, lectins, polypeptides, terpenoids and many phytochemicals are proved important antifungal compounds. It was concluded that these compounds directly or with a little bit modification are beneficial against a variety of fungal diseases^8,9. These compounds not only possess antifungal activities but many other activities like antibacterial, antidiabetic, cardio protective, antitumor and anti-inflammatory. Natural products are proved to be less toxic so synthetic medicines should be replaced by these natural products. Natural products are proved to be cost effective drugs. It is seen that natural products have minimum side effects and are easily available⁷.

Senna alata is an annual shrub that 5-8 ft. tall and 3-4 ft. wide. It is a broadleaf evergreen shrub with yellow flowers. It belongs to Fabaceae family mostly located in intertropical regions such as northern south America and central America. In Malaysia, it is thoroughly distributed. It is known as Gelenggang Besar in Malaysia and used to prepare medicines for the treatment of various diseases for example diseases related to skin, rheumatism, constipation, diabetes and gonorrhoea¹⁰. Emperor’s candlesticks, candelabra bush, empress candle plant, candle bush, Christmas candle, ringworm shrub and Ergaj are some other common names of Senna alata¹¹. This shrub has nasty smell and preferred moist and sunny areas. It is also called as Cassia alata which belongs to subfamily of Fabaceae called Caesalpiniaceae¹². In literature Senna species have much importance. According to Islam religion, Senna alexandrina (one of the Senna species) is the best herb for laxation and now research revealed that Senna alexandrina possess high laxative properties which Islam religion highlighted more than 1400 years ago. According to Islam, every living must die one day. But if cure of death exists then it must be in Senna alexandrina. So, Senna species possess many important pharmacological properties. Senna alata shrub is grown in very well drained soils having average to medium moisture level in full sun. Whole shrub is medically important and edible. It is mostly used in the form of tea. Tannins, terpenes, alkaloids, saponins, steroids, anthraquinones and carbohydrates are some important compounds isolated from this shrub. Presence of these compounds in this shrub are concluded to be the reason for antifungal activity¹³.

Senna alata is an important shrub has many uses as food and in the field of medicine. It is also called as an ornamental plant. Whole shrub is edible and young leaves are eaten after cooked. But when leaves are toasted then it can be used as a substitute for coffee. Young pods can also be used as food after cooking but in small amount only. In the field of medicine, this shrub is famous for its laxative effects. Skin problems such as scabies and ring worm can also be treated with this shrub. It has been seen that this plant exhibit antispasmodic, antifungal, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, analgesic, hypoglycaemic and diuretic properties. Plant also exhibits anthelmintic and insecticidal properties. Tannins isolated from this plant can be used as a colour for making tattoos. No doubt this plant as a whole exhibit pharmacological properties. When properties of the individual parts of the plant is observed, it is seen that its leaves exhibit laxative properties and used to cure constipation. Sometimes these leaves are also used for purification of the blood. Hypertension and biliousness can also be cured can also be cured due to synergistic effect of leaves of this plant. Moreover, these leaves can also be used for the treatment of fungal skin infections, scabies, ring worm and other skin diseases. Bark of this plant is used to treat diarrhoea, eczema, parasitic skin diseases, worms and scabies. Root of this plant exhibits laxative properties and used to treat tympanites, filaria worm expulsion, diarrhoea, uterus problems, sores and skin fungi. Flowers of this plant are vermifuges and exhibit laxative properties also. These are used to cure spleen conditions and grippe. They also act as abortifacient. Stomach problems can be cured with a mixture of flowers, fruits and leaves. While seeds are highly anthelmintic and laxative. It is seen that these properties of the plants are due to anthraquinone, aloe emodin, rhein, emodin, chrysophanol and anthracene compounds¹⁴.

About more than 500 fungus species cause different types of fungal diseases in humans^15-17. Among these, approx. 100 are those species which attack healthy individuals are called as primary pathogens. Diseases of fungi can be caused by different ways. Fungal diseases may be caused by replication of fungus. Tissues are invaded by fungal cells and this invasion cause disruption of their function. Fungal diseases can be caused by immune response. It can also occur through competitive metabolism. Sometimes fungal diseases are caused by toxic metabolites. For example, acetaldehyde which is a carcinogenic substance is produced by Candida species during metabolism. Phenols, flavonoids, coumarins, quinones, saponins, xanthones, alkaloids, lectins, polypeptides, terpenoids and many phytochemicals are some compounds isolated from plants are thought to exhibit antifungal properties. Present study emphasizes a review on antifungal activities of Senna alata.

Antifungal Activity:

Various extracts are isolated and prepared from Senna alata. Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of these extracts are evaluated to check activities. Preliminary tests to detect the presence of different types of compounds like alkaloids, glycosides, steroids, flavonoids, proteins, free amino acids, carbohydrates, volatile oils and saponins were performed. Flavonoids are the most common compounds isolated from this plant. Thorough study of this plant has concluded results that compounds isolated from Senna alata plant possess high antifungal activity among various other activities¹². Makinde et al. reported antifungal and antimicrobial activities of Senna alata plant. They isolated and prepared aqueous and methanolic extracts from leaves of this plant. Antifungal and antibacterial activities of these extracts were evaluated by using different methods. They concluded that aqueous and methanolic extracts of leaves of this plant exhibit more antifungal activities than antibacterial. Results from their findings reported that flowers and fruits of this plant can be used traditionally for the treatment of various skin diseases which is caused by fungi¹⁸.

Vacuum chromatography with silica gel were used to extract and isolate compounds of Senna alata. Different compounds can be isolated from this plant such as anthraquinone, aloe-emodin, emodin, rhein, chrysophanol and clotrimazole. Vacuum chromatography technique was used to get high yield extract of anthraquinone. Its stability and antifungal activity were also evaluated by using different methods. High yielding extract of anthraquinone showed 15.62 µg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration against T. rubrum, 62.5µg/mL against T. mentagrophytes and 250 µg/mL against M. gypseum. It is seen that anthraquinone extracts not only possess high antifungal activity, but it also acquires much stability so that further herbal medicines can be developed from it¹⁹. Extracts of Senna alata leaves with ether, acetone, chloroform and ethanol are prepared. Antifungal activities of these extracts were evaluated. It is seen that these extracts showed high in vitro antifungal activities against different species of fungi such as A. niger, C. albicans, R. japonicum, R. glutinis and C. tropiathis²⁰. Duraipandiyan and Ignacimuthu reported the antifungal activities of traditional plants. These medicinal plants were collected from Tamil Nadu, city of India. Among these plants, Senna alata is our plant of interest. Ethanolic extracts of this plant has been prepared. It is seen that this plant showed 500mg/mL concentration of antifungal activity against variety of fungi such as Penicillium sp, Microsporum sp, Aspergillus sp and Trichophyton sp. These extracts did not show activity against C. albicans and C. neoformans. Flowers showed more significant antifungal activities than leaves.

Antifungal effects of Senna alata has been evaluated against Sclerotium rolfsii. In storage, Sclerotium rolfsii causes cocoyam cormel rot. In vitro study showed that radial growth of the pathogens has significantly reduced while in vivo study showed that spread of rot disease has also reducedby treating with the water extracts and leaf powders of Senna alata. In culture, leaf powders of Senna alata plant are proved to be more effective in inhibition of the rot causing fungus and in cocoyam cormels, leaf powder showed more reduction in rot development than water extracts. So, it was concluded that water extracts and leaf powders of Senna alata plant were proved to be effective bio-protectors against cocoyam cormels²¹. ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized. ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized from solution of zinc acetate by using Senna alata plant. These synthesized nanoparticles were tested against dermatophytosis. Dermatophytosis is a skin disease also called as ringworm. This disease is mainly caused by fungal species, mostly those species which digest keratin. It is seen from the results that ZnO nanoparticles of Senna alatashowed 25, 55, 30, 100 and 35µl/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against M. cranis, T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, E. floccosum and M. audouiniiand 25, 50, 25, 100 and 25µl/mL minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) against M. cranis, T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, E. floccosum and M. audouinii. These nanoparticles showed higher activities against fungal pathogens of humans²².

Doughari and Okafor reported antimicrobial and antifungal activity of Senna alata plant. Roots as well as leaves of Senna alata were used to prepare organic and aqueous extracts. Organic extracts showed high activities against fungi than aqueous extracts. Alcoholic extracts showed 6-20mg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration against fungi. While phytochemical analysis concluded that saponins, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides and phenols were present in these extracts²³. Leaf extracts of Senna alata plant were found to be highly active against dermatophytes. When comparison is made with other plants, ethanol extract of Senna alata leaf showed high antidermatophytic activity. Alam et al., prepared organic extracts of Senna alata plant. Leaves of this plant have extracted with methanol and antifungal activities were evaluated. Hence antifungal potentials of this plant enable its vast use in food applications as it increases shelf life. Use of this plant in foods also promote safety of the food²⁴. Ali et al., reported antimicrobial screening of Senna alata plant. Hexane and methanol extracts were prepared and screened phytochemically and tested against antimicrobial species. Methanol extract showed higher fungal activities than hexane extract. Methanol extract of this plant showed 60.51, 95.71, 85.16, 42.37, 84.69, 83.42, 57.99, 14.38 and 73.81µg/mL against T. longifuses, P. boydii, M. canis, T. mentagrophytes, T. simii, F. solani, M. phaseolina, R. solani and T. schoenleinii. Generally, the studied Senna species are proved to be active antifungal compounds²⁵.

Five extracts containing anthraquinone compounds were prepared by using Senna alata powder. Anthraquinone compound is present in different forms. Antifungal activity of all these extracts were evaluated against four dermatophytes such as T. rubrum, E. floccosum, T. mentagrophytes and M. gypseum. Broth dilution and diffusion techniques are used for evaluation of antifungal activity. From glycosidic fraction, anthraquinone aglycones exhibit higher in vitro antifungal activity both qualitatively and quantitatively when compared with other extracts²⁶. Few parts of Senna alata flower were evaluated for antifungal activity against five different species of fungi such as A. niger, G. candidum, C. utilis, A. brevipes and Penicillium species. Methanolic crude extract showed 5mg/mL inhibitory concentration against A. niger. While inhibitory concentration was low against G. candidum and C. utilis. It is seen that in the flower region of the Senna alata plant, there were many antifungal agents present. But it was not cleared whether the antifungal activities of these agents worked additively or synergistically²⁷. Leaves of Senna alata were used and ethanolic extracts were prepared. These ethanolic extracts were evaluated against six species of fungi such as P. oxalicum, A. niger, F. vacitilus, A. tamari, F. oxysporum and Rhizopus species. These ethanolic extracts showed high inhibitory activity against all six species of fungi. Synthetic drugs and extracts showed very high inhibitory effects synergistically against organisms²⁸. Leaves of Senna alata were used to prepare ethanolic, methanolic and petroleum ether extracts. These extracts were evaluated for antifungal activity against different species. Among these three extracts, it was the methanolic extract which showed higher activities against fungal species. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was 70, 70, 70, 860 and 760µg/mL showed by methanolic extracts against Mucor sp, A. niger, Rhizopus sp, C. albicans and Saccharomyces. So, methanolic extracts of Senna alata leaves showed 70µg/mL minimum activity and 860 µg/mL maximum activity²⁹.

In different parts of the world, Senna alata shrub is used in medicines. This shrub is used in the treatment of various diseases. Extracts prepared from wood, bark, flowers and leaves are used in treatment of skin diseases such as pruritis, eczema and itching. These extracts are also used for the treatment of constipation, bronchitis and asthma. 2.5% w/v of the prepared extract can completely inhibit the growth of T. mentagrophytes, M. gypseum and T. rubrum³⁰. Leaves of Senna alata are used to treat constipation and various dermatophyte infections in Thailand. Laxative properties of Senna alata is due to the presence of anthraquinone glycosides which is thought to be the active constituent of this plant. While antifungal activity of Senna alata plant is due to the presence of various aglycones. Aloe-emodin, emodin, rhein and chrysophanol are thought to be some famous aglycones present in the Senna alata plant. Leaf extracts of Senna alata plant were prepared. It is seen that these extracts showed higher antifungal activity against M. gypseum, T. mentagrophytes and T. rubrum. 125mg/mL of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value was shown against these three species of fungi. While 62.5mg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value was shown against M. canis³¹. For the first time in history, leaf extract of Senna alata plant was prepared and its therapeutic efficacy was evaluated against Pityriasis versicolor. Many compounds having high antifungal activity were isolated from the leaves of Senna alata. It was ten years study. This study concluded that the leaf extract of Senna alata plant can be the alternative of many synthetic medicines. It can be a reliable medicine to treat P. versicolor. No side effects were reported by use of this extract³². Methanolic extracts were prepared by using leaves of three plants. These extracts are then evaluated for antifungal activity against three pathogenic fungi such as M. gypseum, T. rubrum and P. marneffei. Among three extracts, extract of Senna alata plant are proved to be effective against M. gypseum and T. rubrum. This extract showed total 50% of inhibition concentration of hyphal growth. This inhibition was shown at 0.5 and 0.8mg/mL correspondingly. Moreover, conidial germination of M. gypseum was also affected by these three extracts. When it was observed microscopically, it was seen that when macroconidia and hyphae were treated with leaf extracts, then they became collapsed and shrunken. This collapse was due to the leakage of cell fluid³³.

Sule et al. reported the in vitro antifungal activities and phytochemical properties of Senna alata plant. Various clinical tests were performed on different dermatophytes such as E. floccosum, M. canslaslomyces, T. mentagrophytesand T. verrucosum. Highest inhibition activity was shown by crude extract on E. floccosum and T. verrucosum which was 20.05mm and 21.00mm zones of inhibition. 5.0mg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was shown by extracts of Senna alata plant against all types of dermatophytes. Results obtained from these experiments were remarkable and extract of Senna alata was proved to be the best fungicidal for all tested dermatophytes⁷. Leaves of Senna alata were used to prepare ethyl acetate, chloroform and hexane extracts. Then these extracts were evaluated for hypoglycaemic, analgesic, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory and antifungal activities. Chloroform extract showed 50mg/mL of concentration against `T. mentagrophytes but this extract did not show any activity against C. albicans. It is seen that ethyl acetate and hexane extract showed more activity against both these organisms³⁴. Ethanolic extracts of Senna alata plant were evaluated for antifungal activities againstE. floccosum, M. canis, T. mentagrophytes and T. jirrucosum. Highest inhibition activity was shown by ethanolic extract on E. floccosum and T. verrucosuf which was 20.00mm and 20.50mm zones of inhibition. 5.0mg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was shown by extracts of Senna alata plant against all types of dermatophytes. From biochemical analysis, it is seen that anthraquinones, saponins, carbohydrates, tannins and alkaloids were present³⁵. Water and ethanolic extracts from leaves of Senna alata plant were prepared to check its efficacy and safety against infectious diseases caused by fungi. 27.80, 30.30, 29.50, 32.40 and 26.90mg of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) were shown by water leaf extract against T. mentagrophytes, M. cranis, P. notatum, A. niger and C. albicans. While ethanol leaf extract showed 9.80, 12.60, 4.90, 3.50 and 5.60mg minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against all these pathogens. So, it is concluded that Senna alata plant possesses high activity against pathogenic fungi and should be used as traditional medicine³⁶.

CONCLUSION:

This review presented the antifungal activity of Senna alataplant and its various chemical constituents such astannins, terpenes, alkaloids, saponins, steroids, anthraquinones and carbohydrates that exist in different parts of theplanti.e., roots, root bark, buds, bark, leaves, flowers and fruits which are responsible for its antifungal activity. Due to its antifungal activity, it can be used to treat and cure serious fungal infections and diseases such as ringworm, vaginal candidiasis, fungal nail and eye infections, thrush, blastomycosis, valley fever, histoplasmosis, aspergillosis, candidiasis, mycetoma and many others. It can also be used in preservation of food and have applications in pharmaceutical industries. It is suggested to concentrateon synthesis of nanoparticles³⁷ of this plant and their effects should be studied. Synergistic effects of this plant with other plants should also be studied.

REFERENCES:

1. Ashfaq MH, Siddique A, Shahid SJAJoPR. Antioxidant Activity of Cinnamon zeylanicum:(A Review). 2021;11(2):106-16.

2. Thombre N, Thete M, Shimpi PJAJoPR. Review on role of herbs in management of oral diseases. 2020;10(4):321-6.

3. Paur I, Carlsen MH, Halvorsen BL, Blomhoff RJHMB, edition CAn. Antioxidants in herbs and spices. 2011.

4. Samal PKJAJPR. Antioxidant activity of Strobilanthes asperrimus in albino rats. 2013;3(2):71-4.

5. Shah RR, Vakhariya RRJAJoPR. Formulation and Evaluation of Antifungal Soap of Garlic Oil. 2020;10(1):13-6.

6. Shah RR, Patil PJ, Adnaik PR, Adnaik RSJA. Biochemical profiling of Antifungal soap activity of betel leaf (Piper betle L.) extract and Garlic oil by In vitro method. 2020;7(6.6):6.5.

7. Kooti W, Daraei NJJoe-bc, medicine a. A review of the antioxidant activity of celery (Apium graveolens L). 2017;22(4):1029-34.

8. Arif T, Bhosale J, Kumar N, Mandal T, Bendre R, Lavekar G, et al. Natural products–antifungal agents derived from plants. 2009;11(7):621-38.

9. Senthilkumar G, Madhanraj P, Panneerselvam AJAjopr. Studies on the compounds and its antifungal potentiality of fungi isolated from paddy field soils of Jenbagapuram Village, Thanjavur District, and South India. 2011;1(1):19-21.

10. Hazni H, Ahmad N, Hitotsuyanagi Y, Takeya K, Choo C-YJPm. Phytochemical constituents from Cassia alata with inhibition against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). 2008;74(15):1802-5.

11. Hennebelle T, Weniger B, Joseph H, Sahpaz S, Bailleul FJF. Senna alata. 2009;80(7):385-93.

12. Srinivasan NJF-iG-iD. Pharmacognostical and phytochemical evaluation of Cassia alata Linn. 2018;6:69-77.

13. Sule W, Okonko I, Omo-Ogun S, Nwanze J, Ojezele M, Ojezele O, et al. Phytochemical properties and in-vitro antifungal activity of Senna alata Linn. crude stem bark extract. 2011;5(2):176-83.

14. Fern K. Tropical plants database, Ken Fern. tropical. theferns. info. 2018.

15. Saha D, Paul SJAJoP, Technology. In Vitro Screening of Antifungal Activity of Methanol Extract of Alpinia Conchigera Griff against Some Pathogenic Species of Fungi. 2012;2(2):44-6.

16. Godheja J, Shekhar SJJoB, Biodegredation. Biodegradation of keratin from chicken feathers by fungal species as a means of sustainable development. 2014;5(5):1.

17. Patil A, Mohite SJAJoRiC. Synthesis of 1, 3, 4-oxadiazole derivatives with its antifungal activity evaluation. 2021;14(5):336-8.

18. Makinde A, Igoli J, Ta’Ama L, Shaibu S, Garba AJAjob. Antimicrobial activity of Cassia alata. 2007;6(13).

19. Sakunpak A, Sirikatitham A, Panichayupakaranant PJPB. Preparation of anthraquinone high-yielding Senna alata extract and its stability. 2009;47(3):236-41.

20. Sher AJGJoMS. Antimicrobial activity of natural products from medicinal plants. 2009;7(1).

21. Nwachukwu EO, Osuji JJRJoA, Sciences B. Evaluation of plant extracts for antifungal activity against Sclerotium rolfsii causing cocoyam cormel rot in storage. 2008;4(6):784-7.

22. Sujatha J, Asokan S, Rajeshkumar SJJoM, Biotechnology, Sciences F. Antidermatophytic activity of green synthesised zinc oxide nanoparticles using Cassia alata leaves. 2021;2021:348-52.

23. Doughari J, Okafor BJE, Sciences CAJoP. Antimicrobial Activity of Senna alata Linn. 2007;10(1):17-21.

24. Alam M, Karim M, Khan SNJJosr. Antibacterial activity of different organic extracts of Achyranthes aspera and Cassia alata. 2009;1(2):393-8.

25. Ali M, Azhar I, Amtul Z, Ahmad V, Usmanghani KJF. Antimicrobial screening of some Caesalpiniaceae. 1999;70(3):299-304.

26. Wuthi-udomlert M, Kupittayanant P, Gritsanapan WJJohr. In vitro evaluation of antifungal activity of anthraquinone derivatives of Senna alata. 2010;24(3):117-22.

27. Adedayo O, Anderson W, Moo-Young M, Kolawole DJPb. Antifungal properties of some components of Senna alata flower. 1999;37(5):369-74.

28. Odunbaku O, Lusanya OJAiEB. Synergistic effect of ethanol leaf extract of Senna alata and antimicrobial drugs on some pathogenic microbes. 2011:2162-6.

29. Owoyale J, Olatunji G, Oguntoye SJJoAS, Management E. Antifungal and antibacterial activities of an alcoholic extract of Senna alata leaves. 2005;9(3):105-7.

30. Palanichamy S, Nagarajan SJJoe. Antifungal activity of Cassia alata leaf extract. 1990;29(3):337-40.

31. Panichayupakaranant P, Sakunpak A, Sakunphueak AJJocs. Quantitative HPLC determination and extraction of anthraquinones in Senna alata leaves. 2009;47(3):197-200.

32. Damodaran S, Venkataraman SJJoe. A study on the therapeutic efficacy of Cassia alata, Linn. leaf extract against Pityriasis versicolor. 1994;42(1):19-23.

33. Phongpaichit S, Pujenjob N, Rukachaisirikul V, Ongsakul MJSJST. Antifungal activity from leaf extracts of Cassia alata L., Cassia fistula L. and Cassia tora L. 2004;26(5):741-8.

34. Villaseñor IM, Canlas AP, Pascua MPI, Sabando MN, Soliven LAPJPR. Bioactivity studies on Cassia alata Linn. leaf extracts. 2002;16(S1):93-6.

35. Sule W, Okonko I, Joseph T, Ojezele M, Nwanze J, Alli J, et al. In vitro antifungal activity of Senna alata Linn. crude leaf extract. 2010;5(3):275-84.

36. Timothy S, Wazis C, Adati R, Maspalma IJJoAPS. Antifungal activity of aqueous and ethanolic leaf extracts of Cassia alata Linn. 2012;2(7):182.

37. Baskar G, Chandhuru J, Fahad KS, Praveen AJAJoP, Technology. Mycological synthesis, characterization and antifungal activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles. 2013;3(4):142-6.

Received on 08.02.2022 Modified on 04.06.2022

Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2022; 12(4):307-311.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5691.2022.00050