INTRODUCTION:

Plants espeically those with ethnomedicinal use have been the major source of medicine for early drug discovery. WHO encourages use of natural products for primary healthcare. Developing countries are using herbal products for health care needs. The demand for herbals has increased drastically now-a-days owing to their safety, efficacy, especially in the management of chronic health problems. The selected plant is an ethnomedicinally, ornamentally, and economically important plant Casuarina equisetifolia Linn. belongs to the family Casuarinaceae^1,2.

The present article describes the ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, pharmacognostical, pharmacological, and commercial applications of the plant species

Distribution:

Casuarina is a genus of 17 species in the family Casuarinaceae, native to Australasia, southeastern Asia, Malaysia, southern Myanmar, the Kra Isthmus of Thailand, Melanesia, Polynesia and islands of the western Pacific Ocean, New Guinea, Mascarene Island, New Caledonia. It occurs naturally on subtropical and tropical coastlines. It is common along the coast on beaches, rocky coasts, hill side and open forest in both wet and dry zones^3,4,5. It is an ornamental plant grown in Pakistan, India, tropical Africa and Sri Lanka⁶. It is also cultivated as an ornamental for wind-breaks, or as a medicinal plant in some tropical countries in South pacific^3,4,5.

Casuarina equisetifolia, a widespread seashore tree known as Common Ironwood, Beefwood, Bull-oak, Whistling-pine. (This species is not a pine at all, but superficially resembles a conifer⁷. It is a distinctive group of angiosperms, class of woody vascular seed plant like conifer. It is an evergreen non-leguminous, woody forest tree with dropping branches, attains height up to 50m. In this plant, actinomycete Frankia. helps to fix nitrogen in the roots. Thus, this symbiotic association helps in nitrogen fixation and also makes the tree to adapt to varied soil types and extreme environmental stress conditions and can withstand natural calamities^8,9. There are four cultivated species of casuarinas viz., C.equisetifolia, C. glauca, C. cunninghamaina and C. junghuniana. India is one of the largest cultivator of the plant¹⁰, cultivated on Coastal regions from Gujarat to Orissa, some parts of West Bengal and in Andamans¹¹, on sandy soils of inland districts¹². In Tamil Nadu, this tree is mainly grown in districts of Cuddalore, Villupuram, Kancheepuram, Tiruvallur, Thanjavur and Ramanathapuram¹².

DESCRIPTION:

The selected plant species C.equisetifolia, an evergreen tree to 46m (150 ft) tall, usually with single trunk and open, irregular crown¹³.

Flowers:

It is a bisexual plant. Male flowers occur in cones, while the female flowers occur in groups and they are small. The flowering occurs two times in a year between February – April and September – October months. Male flowers produce blossom after two years of seedling but female flowers produce blossom after few days. Female flowers are in small auxiliary clusters, while male flowers are in small terminal spikes. Wind pollination occurs in this plant. The male flowers are at the tips of the leaf twigs, while the female flowers are on the branchlets below the leaf twigs^13.

Fruits:

Fruit is very small, winged nut lets. The fruits are contained in woody, cone-like structures that are 0.75 inches (2cm) long. Ripening of fruits occurs during June and December. The woody cones are globose in shape. The ripe cones are brownish red or grey in colour. They contain a number of around winged achenes, with a single seed. Each cone bears 70 to 90 seeds. The seeds are light brown colored^13.

Bark:

It consists of channelled, curved, slightly quilled, usually 0.2-0.8cm thick, brittle, lenticellate peeling pieces with outer surface ash-grey to greyish-brown to reddish brown and internal surface light yellow to deep dirty brown coloured having no odour and astringent taste, rough, brittle, peeling. The branches are slender and drooping, and the trees have a wispy appearance. Branch lets are resemble as pine needles and they are very thin, 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20cm) long and greyish-green colour. The bark on older trees is rough, gray brown and flaking on the exterior and beefy red brown on the interior^13.

Foliage or Leaves:

Leaves are reduced to tiny scales, six to eight in whorls (distinction from other similar species), whorls encircle joints of branch lets^3,4,5.

Seed:

It is a dioecious plant which contains male and female plants grown separately. Of the total population, 56% of the plants are male, 42% of the plants are female and 2-3% of the plants are bisexual. Before dehiscence of ripen cones from trees, it can be collected from 5-6 years old age tree. The winged seeds can be shed and separated after drying them in the sun for 3-4 days. After separating of winged seeds, they can be dried again for 3-4 days^3.4,5.

Ethnomedicinal uses:

The parts of the plant medicinally used are aerial parts, root, and seed^14,15,16. The plant is a dicot angiosperm with immense potential to combat dental caries¹⁷. Presence of high amount of tannin in the bark is responsible for its action against toothache¹⁸. The decoction formulated from the tannin containing astringent bark of Casuarina was used against tooth ache. Routine chewing of the root is also effective to maintain dental hygiene¹⁷. The plant also displays antimicrobial properties¹⁹. The bark of the plant is used as an astringent²⁰. Due to the presence of amino acids, taraxerol, lupenone, lupeol, alicyclic acid, gallic acid and sitosterol, this plant is reported as antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anticancerous, antioxidant and analgesic⁶. The plant is traditionally used for diabetes, hyperlipidimeia, as astringent, in diahorrea, muscle weakness, gastric problems, microbial diseases and nervous disorders. It was also used for the treatment of constipation, cough, dysentery, gonorrhea, nervous disorders, acne, throat infections and stomach ulcer^{21, 22, 23}. However, bark was used as an astringent and used in stomachache, diarrhea, dysentery and nervous disorders. Leaf was used as antispasmodic in colic. Aerial parts were used as hypoglycaemic^14,24. Seeds were used as anthelmintic, antispasmodic and antidiabetic²⁵. The bark decoction being astringent administerd as a remedy for diarrhea and dysentery, as a lotion for beri-beri, and as a gargle to relieve sore throat²⁶.

Pharmacognostic Studies:

Various pharmacognostic characters observed in the study help in botanical identification and standardization of C. equisetifolia L. in crude form.

Microscopic Study (Transverse section) of Stem Bark:

It shows phellem (2-5 or more layers of cork), phellogen (3-5 layered), phelloderm (12-18 layered secondary cortex), phloem fibre, phloem parenchyma, and stone cells.

Microscopic powder analysis of stem bark:

Stem bark powder appears brownish showing thick walled oval to polygonal cork cells, hexagonal phelloderm cells, rectangular thin walled cortex cells, thick walled elongated phloem fibres, lignified stone cells and rhomboidal crystals of calcium oxalate^13,27.

Physicochemical analysis:

The physicochemical analysis of the bark power showed loss on drying, total ash, water soluble ash, acid insoluble ash and sulphated ash as 2.3, 5.0, 1.6, 0.7 and 5.7% w/w respectively. The alcohol and water soluble extractives values of the stem bark were 17.10 and 11.0% w/w respectively¹³. The petroleum ether soluble extractive 1.4-0.16, chloroform soluble extractive 2.1-0.08, methanol soluble extractive 17.10 - 0.39 and water soluble extractive 11.0- 0.48 were determined²⁸.

Phytochemical Screening:

Qualitative preliminary phytochemical screening:

The preliminary qualitative screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, glycosides, carbohydrates, proteins, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, and phytosterols in different parts of the plant using various solvents^29,30.

Phenolic Compounds:

The plant is also known to store high amount of tannins ³¹ and proline³² being a nitrogen fixing plant³¹. The following phenolic compounds are isolated from leaves fruits, and bark extract were tannins like ellagic acid, gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, proanthocyanidins, procatechuic, p-coumaric, chlorogenic, pyrogallol³³, hydroquinone, protocatioic, syringic, parahydroxybenzoic acid, salicyclic acid, vanillic acid, and rosmarinic acid^34,18,35, lupeol, lupenone, amino acids, taraxerol,³⁶, d-gallocatechin (Casuarin)^5. Flavonoids Compounds like Kaempferol, quercetin, cupressuflavone, isoquercitrin, juglanin, nicotoflorin, rutin, hesperetin, and narenginin^{33, 37.}

The condensed tannins from the root and stem bark comprised of prodelphinidin combined with procyanidin, along with propelargonidin, and epicatechin^5. However, the phenolics in the extract of the plant as gallic 21.41, protocatechuic 13.15, P-coumaric 0.73, chlorogenic 129.42, catechol 16.17, pyrogallol 1049.9, salicylic 3.14, chrysin 3.04 and benzoic 181.39mg/100g were determined^38. The methanolic leaf extract contains various phytoconstituents as rutin 834.6mg/100g, rosmarinic 384.6mg/100g, quercitin 837.9mg/100g, hesperetin 206.2mg/100g, narenginin 384.8mg/100g, apignen 59.9mg/100g and kampferol 399.2mg/100g^39. The phytocomponents isolated from the plant branchlet were quercetin-3-α-araboside, quercetin-3-β-glucoside kaempferol-3-α-rhmanoside, luteolin-3', 4'-dimethoxy-7-β-rhamnoside, and kaempferol-3-β-dirhamnoside^40.

Alkaloids:

Casuarine is only alkaloid present in plant, its chemically highly oxygenated pyrzolidine alkaloid. It is 1, (1R,2R,3R,6S,7S,7aR)-3-(hydroxymethyl) -1,2,6,7-tetrahydroxy pyrrolizidine was isolated from the bark of the plant^5.

Terpenoid Compounds:

Seventy six terepenoid compounds were identified in the leaf and fruit oil. Lupeol is a pentacyclic triterpenoid that is lupane in which the hydrogen at the 3beta position is substituted by a hydroxy group it has several potential medicinal properties monoterpenehydrocarbons (29.3%), oxygenated monoterpenoids (16.2%), sesquiterpene (29.3%), aliphatic (40%) The major compounds were pentadecanal (32.0%), 1,8-cineole (13.1%). Sesquiterpene were absent in fruits oils. The main constituents are caryophyllene-oxide (11.1%), translinalool oxide (11.5%), and 1,8-cineole (9.7%) ^{29, 34,18.} Significant quantities of α-phellandrene (7.0%), apiole (7.2%) and α- terpinene (6.9%) were present ^34,37,11. Coumaroyl triterpenes⁴¹ were also identified^30,33.The GC-MS analysis of leaf essential oil of the plant showed main components such as pentadecanal (32.0%) and 1,8-cineole (13.1%), apiole (7.2%), α-phellandrene (7.0%) and α-terpinene (6.9%). The fruit essential oil was comprised of caryophyllene-oxide (11.7%), trans-linalool oxide (11.5%), simple terpenenoids such as 1,8-cineole (9.7%), α-terpineol (8.8%) and α-pinene (8.5%) ^29.

Phytosterol Compounds:

Beta-sitosterol, cholesterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, cholest-5-en-3-beta-ol derivatives. sitosterol^6.

Quanitative analysis:

The quantitative analysis revealed maximum amount of tannins (77.59±0.21), phenolic compounds (71.2±0.51 mg/g), flavonoids (35.12±0.34mg/g), and terpenoids (6%) in methanolic extract of bark when compared with standard compounds. Several peaks were obtained in the GC-MS analysis which indicates the presence of different secondary metabolites^42. Gallic acid equivalent (GAE) phenolic compound content (68.64Â±0.25mg GAE/g of extract), quercetin equivalent flavonoid content (29.09Â±0.14mg of QUE/g of extract), tannic acid equivalent (TAE) tannin content (51Â±0.42mg TAE/g of extract), and terpenoid content (5.2%) were found to be significant in the methanol root extract of the plant when compared with other solvents. GC-MS analysis revealed different peaks indicating the presence of different secondary metabolites^43. The total phenol contents of leaves of the plant was found to be 72.1 mg/g. The results of HPLC (High performance liquid chromatography) analysis showed the presence of 8 phenolic compounds in the leaves as major active constituents namely gallic, protocatioic, chlorogenic, p.hydroxy benzoic, syringic, p.coumaric, salicylic and vanillic acids. Further, showed the presence of gallic, salicylic and protocatioic in high concentration at 19.18, 11.57 and 6.84μg/g, respectively^30,44,20.

Pharmacological Studies:

Hypoglycemic activity:

The hyperglycemic activity of plant ethanol extract of bark was evaluated against the streptozotocin induced in male Wistar rats^45,46. The antidiabetic activity of plant leaves ethanolic extract was evaluated against streptozotocin (STZ) induced experimental rats. Blood glucose levels were determined. Ethanolic extracts of C. equisetifolia (400mg/kg) was found to reduce blood sugar in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats ^4.

Antihyperlipidemic activity:

The effect of leaf ethanolic extracts on serum lipid, total cholesterol, triglycerides, low density and high density lipoprotein were also measured in the diabetic and non diabetic rats. There was significant reduction in total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol and improvement in HDL cholesterol in diabetic rats ^4. The bark contents were incorporated into albino rat feed at 10-40% and the effect on the lipid profiles and blood sugar was investigated. The parameters studied were triacylglycerol (TGL), total cholesterol (TC), total lipid (TL), phospholipids (PHOS), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and random blood sugar (RBS). The low-density lipoprotein (LDL) was decreasing with the increase in the bark contents of the feeds. The RBS also decreased as the percentage bark contents of the feeds increased, indication that it could have anti-diabetic properties ^[47]. The effect of extracts of bark on serum lipid profile, total cholesterol, triglycerides, low density, very low density and high density lipoprotein was evaluated in the diabetic and non diabetic rats. There was significant reduction in total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol and improvement in HDL cholesterol in diabetic rats^48.

Antioxidant activity:

The antioxidant activity was performed by DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl) and FRAP (Ferric reducing/ antioxidant power) methods. The activity was compared with ascorbic acid and procyanidin. The extracts tested for procyanidin showed more antioxidant activity^49,50. The condensed tannins extracted from the plant showed very good radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing/ antioxidant power^20. In comparison to ascorbic acid the plant extracts showed strong antioxidant by DPPH free radical scavenging activity where the IC50 = 25.71μg/ml^51. The bark extracts showed potent antioxidant activity compared with the standard ascorbic acid ^42. Various parts of the plant such as bark, leaves, seeds and fruits have been reported to possess antioxidant activity^36.

Anti-inflamatory activity:

The different concentrations of (20, 40, 60, 80μg/ml) bark extracts showed the antinflamatory activity. The methanolic bark extract showed the maximum inhibition when compared to ethanol and aqueous extracts. Anti-inflammatory activity was compared with standard diclofenac sodium and the extract showed activities significantly in a dose-dependent manner^42. The methanolic extracts of roots exhibited better in vitro anti-inflammatory activity with maximum inhibition (84.6Â±0.26) and (IC50 33.6Â±0.23 Î¼g/ml) at 80 Î¼g/ml ⁴³.

Antimicrobial activity:

Antimicrobial activity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the plant was carried out by disc diffusion method. Leaves and bark extracts showed good anti microbial effect and inhibited 100% growth of microorganisms. The activity was tested against micro organisms such as S.aureus, E.coli, B.substilis, P.vulgaris, and A.niger. The A.niger growth was effectively inhibited by ethanolic extract of the plant ^10. The antimicrobial potential of various plant part extracts such as root, stem, leaves, and bark was tested against six different species. Acetone extracts of the plant showed maximum inhibition ^[52]. The crude methanolic extracts of bark, wood, leaf and fruits of the plant and chromatographically isolated compounds were studied for antibacterial and antifungal activities. The effects of antibacterial and antifungal activities of isolated compounds were compared with ketokonazole (10units/disc) and ampicillin (10 units/disc). The isolated compounds have shown activity against Gram negative bacteria and less activity against Gram positive bacteria. Among these, (gallic acid) and (lupeol) have shown good activity against Gram-negative (E. coli and P. aeuroginosa) bacteria. Methanolic extracts of wood, bark and fruit has shown good activity (10.0, 12.0 and 10.0mm respectively) against Gram positive microorganisms (S. aureus) while the extracts were without any effect against Gram negative microorganism. Fruit extract has resulted in good antifungal activity against C.albicans. Lupeol, isolated from fruit, showed similar (8.0mm) antifungal activity⁵³. Methanolic extracts of the leaves of the plant showed mild antibacterial activity against Gram positive (Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus) and Gram negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E. coli) by disc diffusion method ⁵¹. Aqueous extract of the plant was active against B. subtilis, P. pseudoalcaligenes, S. typhimurium and S. epidermidis, with a zone of inhibition of 8-11mm. The methanolic extract was active against B. subtilis, P. vulgaris, P. pseudoalcaligenes, S. typhimurium and S. epidermidis with a zone of inhibition 12-18mm^54.

The antimicrobial activities of leaves extract was investigated against seven medically important bacterial strains, B. subtilis, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), Micrococcus, E.coli, P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae and four fungi. The antibacterial activity of aqueous and organic solvents was determined by agar well diffusion method. The most pronounced effect was shown by the methanol extract. The most susceptible bacteria were S. aureus, followed by K. pneumoniae, while the most resistant bacteria was B. subtilis followed by Micrococcus. The antifungal activity of aqueous and organic solvents was also determining. The most pronounced effect was shown by ethanolic extract. The most susceptible fungi were A. flavus while the most resistant fungi were C.albicans isolates^44. Antibacterial effect of the plant against susceptible pathogenic oral bacteria was examined by well diffusion method. Different plant parts were screened for the phytochemicals using various polar solvents like ethanol, acetone, methanol, chloroform and water. Studies disclosed that the plant encompasses a wide range of phytochemicals with anticariogenic activity. During phytochemical analysis by thin layer chromatography four compounds were obtained in the acetone solvent system with highest Rƒ value of 0.911^18,35. Prominent antibacterial activity was observed in methanolic root extract, with a maximum inhibition zone of 23.45Â±0.28 mm against Proteus vulgari ^43. The methanol root extract was most effective with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) 52.74Â±0.65 Î¼g/ml for DPPH and 64.94Â±0.24 Î¼g/ml for hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity. Maximum absorbance was observed by 80 Î¼g/ml (IC50 51.79Â±0.26 Î¼g/ml) of methanol root extract with respect to reducing power assay^43. The bark extracts exhibited antibacterial activity, showed a maximum zone of inhibition against Escherichia coli (23±0.24 mm) and Proteus vulgaris (23±0.32mm) because of phenolic substances such as tannins and flavonoids^42. Various parts of the plant such as bark, leaves, seeds and fruits have been reported to posess antimicrobial activity^16. The anti-Helicobacter pylori and urease inhibition activities of extracts of the plant were investigated. The plant extracts showed less activity compared to standard antibiotic drugs used in the study ¹⁶.

Effects on smooth muscles:

Spasmolytic activity:

The methanolic extract of the stem bark reduced ileum contractions induced by spasmogens like histamine, ACh, BaCl_2,and KCl. The extract potentiated the effect of Nifedipine, indicating antihistaminic, antimuscarinic, and a calcium channel blocking action. Flavonoids and tannins present in the extract might be responsible for the observed antispasmodic effect and suggests multiple mechanisms, which can be exploited in future studies^55.

Anti histamine activity:

The antihistamine activity of methanolic wood extract of the plant was performed by clonidine induced catalepsyintraperitoneally in mice. The histamine release was decreased which may be due to the mast cell stabilizing or antihistamine properties¹¹.

Antispasmodic activity:

The plant bark extract reduced ileum contractions induced by ACh, histamine, BaCl₂, and KCl. The effect of nifedipine was enhanced. It suggests antihistaminic, antimuscarinic, and calcium channel blocking action of plant bark extract. The authors suggested that flavonoids and tannins present in the extract might be responsible for the observed antispasmodic effect^55. The isolated goat tracheal chain was used to assess the antihistaminic activity of methanolic extracts of wood, bark, fruit and leaf of the plant. The extracts of wood and bark showed antihistaminic activity by inhibiting the histamine induced tracheal contractions at 0-80mcg/ml in a dose dependent manner at P<0.05. The fruit, and leaf extractsshowed no effect. The successive chloroform extract demonstrated more activity (63.30±10.33) as compared to petroleum ether (87.5±13.24) and methanolic extract (166.66±23.32) of wood (P<0.05). The chronic treatment of methanolic wood extract (100 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the clonidine induced catalepsy at 60 and 120 minutes (P<0.05) and mast cell degranulation (72.50±8.37) against standard, disodium cromoglycate, (85.19±4.30) (P<0.001) ⁵³.

Gastroprotective effects:

The anti-ulcer effect of the ethanol extract of plant was studied in albino rats by ethanol, indomethacin, and cold-restraint stress induced gastric ulcer models. Ethanol extract caused dose dependent inhibition in ethanol induced gastric lesions^56.

Anti-diarrhoeal activity:

The anti-diarrhoeal effects of ethanolic (90%) extract of the plant was studied in rats by using castor oil-induced diarrhoea, enteropooling and small intestinal transit models in rats. Standard drug diphenoxylate (5 ml/kg, p.o.) was used in the study. The ethanolic extract showed marked reduction in the number of diarrhoea stools and the reduction in the weight and volume of the intestinal contents, as well as a modest reduction in intestinal transit. Ethanolic extract at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg p.o. significantly (P<0.001) reduced the castor-oil induced frequency and consistency of diarrhoea and enteropooling ⁴⁵.

Heptoprotective activity:

The methanol extracts of plant were studied for hepatoprotective activity against liver damage induced in Swiss albino rats by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄). It was found that the methanol extract at a dose of 500mg/kg body weight exhibited moderate protective effect by lowering the serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and cholesterol to a significant extent. The hepatoprotective activity was also supported by attenuatation of the histopathological changes associated with CCl₄ induced hepatotoxicity^45. Treatment with methanol extract of plant at a dose of 500mg/kg body weight, showed that plant extract protected rat liver cells from CCl₄ injury^57,58. Various parts of the plant such as bark, leaves, seeds and fruits have been reported to posess hepatoprotective activity⁵⁹.

Nephroprotective effects:

The nephroprotective activity of methanolic extract of plant leaves was studied in gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in Wistar rats. Subcutaneous injection of rats with gentamicin (80mg/kg body weight/day) for six consecutive days induced marked acute renal toxicity, manifested by a significant increase in serum urea, creatinine and uric acid levels, along with a significant depletion of serum potassium level. The leaves extract ameliorates gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity and oxidative damage by scavenging oxygen free radicals, decreasing lipid peroxidation and improving intracellular antioxidant defense³⁸.

Role of C. equisetifolia in green synthesis of sliver nano particles:

Nano technology is the newest and one of the most promising areas of research in modern science and technology. Metal nano particles show enormous potential application in medicine, biology, material science, physcics, chemistry, biological labeling. Green synthesis of sliver nanoparticles was synthesized from reducing agents of the medicinally valuable plant Casuarina equisetifolia leaves extract⁶⁰.

Cytotoxic effect:

Methanolic extracts of leaves of the plant showed moderate cytotoxic activity in Brine Shrimp lethality bioassay test, where the LC50 was 95.87μg/ml⁵¹.

Toxicity:

The study on acute toxicity of ethanolic extract of plant showed that the extract was safe at the dose of 2000 mg/kg orally⁵⁶. However, the pollen of the plant was recorded as an aeroallergen²⁵.

Anti acne:

To assess the clinical efficacy and cutaneous tolerance of methanolic bark extract of plant (5% cream) was used in the management of acne vulgaris¹⁸ in comparison with benzoyl peroxide as the standard drug. The clinical efficacy of the herbal cream and severity of acne vulgaris was assessed by Cook’s acne grading scale. Results revealed that there was no significant difference found in both test and standard control groups. Further, remarkable improvement was found in acne grading in the test group.¹⁸ A polyherbal gel containing plant extract has shown anti-acne activity in rats^61.

Analgesic activity:

Various parts of the plant such as bark, leaves, seeds and fruits have been reported to posess analgesic⁶² activity.

Commercial Applications:

· C. equisetifolia is mainly cultivated in coastal regions to provide fuelwood, protection against shifting dunes, heavy wind blow and in addition it serves as a stable base for agriculture^8,9.

· In south India, C. equisetifolia is employed exclusively in agroforestry system. The pulp material of this tree crop is widely used in the paper industries.

· Other parts of the tree crop like root, bark and cladode which has potent phytochemical constituents are marked as waste material and are used for fuel purpose by local people^8,9.

· In Florida used as hardwood, pulpwood, and tannin, as well as the abundant sprouts serving as a source of forage for cattle.

· Cattle readily eat the sprouts in Australia, they are recognized as high in tannin, astringent, and constipating.

· The plant being rich in tannin, used for curing alligator skins and preserving fishing lines.

· The logs are difficult to saw; produce off size timber with little market value^26.

· In Puerto Rico, the wood is used mainly for fence posts and poles, rough barns, and other structures.

· In Africa and India, it is used for beams and posts, fenders against wharves, pilings, oars, masts, and mine props. Samoans have fashioned the wood into spears and war clubs^63.

· It is durable in salt water, the wood is very susceptible to dry wood termites and not long-lasting in the ground⁶³.

· It is most widely used as firewood, in China and India. It has a calorific value of 4,950 cals., 8,910 Btu's and has been called "the best firewood in the world"⁶³.

· As the plant is very much resistant to desiccation and salinity, many countries, such as China, Senegal, and Egypt, added it in forestation projects. The object of planting these trees as windbreaks is to reduce wind velocity, evaporation, and wind erosion in order to protect crops and homes, and control movements of sand dunes. After the trees have reached their ultimate size and maturity the wood may then be used⁶⁴.

· A common practice in China is to plant Casuarina when a field has become infertile because of overplanting. This gives the field much needed rest, restores fertility because of the plant's ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, and provides a cash crop of highly saleable firewood when mature.

· Florida, Somalia, Vietnam, and other nations have established programs to reforest vast lengths of coastal dunes^63.

· In India Casuarina-pulp is used for papermaking, along with some long-fibered pulp such as bamboo for blending in order to make paper on fast-running machines^65.

· Casuarinas are good candidates for biomass energy plantations, as well as for pulp and other industrial products, because of their nitrogen-fixing ability^66.

· Several minor uses include the utilization of wood ash in making soap, and the extraction of dye from the bark^26.

CONCLUSION:

Casuarina equisetifolia is a medicinal, and ornamental plant with wide range of chemical constituents which exerted many pharmacological effects. There is a great promise for the development of novel drugs from the plant species to treat chronic human diseases as a result of its effectiveness and safety.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

The authors are thankful to Vijaya Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences for Women, Enikepadu, Vijayawada, Krishna (Dt.), A.P., India, for their kind encouragement and support.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declared no conflict of interest

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Received on 17.04.2020 Modified on 10.06.2021

Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2022; 12(1):88-95.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5691.2022.00014